The Lord's Resistance Army
Conflict is inevitable. There never was, and never will be, a time in history when conflict does not exist and the world no longer suffers from violence To understand this, we need to have a coherent understanding of the terms ‘conflict’ and ‘violence.’ First, conflict can be defined as “what results from the existence, real or imagined, of compatible interest, goals, beliefs, or activities.”[1] Violence is often manifested in three different forms: direct, structural and cultural. In direct violence, there are clear actors and victims, in structural, violence is indirect and cultural is often mental or symbolic.[2] In consideration of these terms we can begin to contemplate the longest running war in the recorded history of Africa:[3] the rebellious acts of the Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) that have emerged out of northern Uganda. This group of rag-tag rebels has caused insurmountable pain, suffering and disunity in central Africa. Their atrocities could be categorized as committing all three forms of violence to the extreme.
In this discussion there are four main aspects that should be addressed concerning the LRA; a description of the conflict, understanding of the LRA and its leader Joseph Kony, the consequences of the war and finally what is being done to bring an end to the situation. Awareness of: the conflict, Joseph Kony, ramifications of the war and the global response is vitally important in the face of the atrocities being committed by the LRA in central Africa.
In this discussion there are four main aspects that should be addressed concerning the LRA; a description of the conflict, understanding of the LRA and its leader Joseph Kony, the consequences of the war and finally what is being done to bring an end to the situation. Awareness of: the conflict, Joseph Kony, ramifications of the war and the global response is vitally important in the face of the atrocities being committed by the LRA in central Africa.
Nature of the Conflict
It would be naive to say that this conflict is straightforward. Rather, it stems from a variety of influences. To begin, it could be said that its roots can be found in ethnic conflict initiated during the British colonial rule during which the tribes of northern Uganda, where the Acholi people call home, were treated unfairly. The British established a construed balance of economic development which resulted in ethnic tension. The people of the north were given positions in the armed forces while the southerners were given better chances of attaining an education and therefore had greater opportunities for occupations.[4]
Ethnic resentment continued following Ugandan independence from Britain and was exemplified when Uganda’s infamous dictator Idi Amin removed all the Acholi from the army and replaced them with men of ethnicities more closely related to his own. This caused greater ethnic tension, which could be compared to that which occurred in colonial Rwanda and the favouritism of the Belgians displayed between the Hutus and Tutsis and the violence that resulted from the tension in that country. The backlash expressed from the Acholi came in the form of a rebel force which sought to vindicate the Acholi, calling themselves the Uganda People’s Democratic Army (UPDA).[5]
One of the units of this rebel force was lead by a “self-styled prophetess Acholi,” Alice Lakwena, and called themselves the Holy Spirit Mobile Force.[6] Lakwena lead a grand assault against the government troops in Kampala, armed primarily with rifles and stones, believing that spiritual forces would protect them. They were subsequently defeated and slaughtered. Lakwena herself fled to Kenya and much of the Acholi rebel army that survived dissolved. Some fighters did remain in the bush and consequently then came under the leadership of a man named Joseph Kony who claimed to be a relative of Lakwena and had inherited her spiritual powers. He then rebranded his rebels, renaming them the Lord’s Resistance Army and gave them the mandate of overthrowing the government and then establishing a new way of ruling the country based on the Ten Commandments and thereby bringing Uganda into a season of paradise.[7]
Kony’s rebel fighters still remain to this day. The conflict is fuelled by the continued distrust between the rebel Acholis and the government. They say they will not relinquish until their objective of overthrowing the government has been achieved. Additional factors are also at play, specifically from Kony. He has no motivation for peace because it is more beneficial for him to remain in the bush receiving the glory of a rebel leader.
Ethnic resentment continued following Ugandan independence from Britain and was exemplified when Uganda’s infamous dictator Idi Amin removed all the Acholi from the army and replaced them with men of ethnicities more closely related to his own. This caused greater ethnic tension, which could be compared to that which occurred in colonial Rwanda and the favouritism of the Belgians displayed between the Hutus and Tutsis and the violence that resulted from the tension in that country. The backlash expressed from the Acholi came in the form of a rebel force which sought to vindicate the Acholi, calling themselves the Uganda People’s Democratic Army (UPDA).[5]
One of the units of this rebel force was lead by a “self-styled prophetess Acholi,” Alice Lakwena, and called themselves the Holy Spirit Mobile Force.[6] Lakwena lead a grand assault against the government troops in Kampala, armed primarily with rifles and stones, believing that spiritual forces would protect them. They were subsequently defeated and slaughtered. Lakwena herself fled to Kenya and much of the Acholi rebel army that survived dissolved. Some fighters did remain in the bush and consequently then came under the leadership of a man named Joseph Kony who claimed to be a relative of Lakwena and had inherited her spiritual powers. He then rebranded his rebels, renaming them the Lord’s Resistance Army and gave them the mandate of overthrowing the government and then establishing a new way of ruling the country based on the Ten Commandments and thereby bringing Uganda into a season of paradise.[7]
Kony’s rebel fighters still remain to this day. The conflict is fuelled by the continued distrust between the rebel Acholis and the government. They say they will not relinquish until their objective of overthrowing the government has been achieved. Additional factors are also at play, specifically from Kony. He has no motivation for peace because it is more beneficial for him to remain in the bush receiving the glory of a rebel leader.
Kony and the LRA
Joseph Kony could easily be described as a charismatic opportunist. He claims to be the ‘New Moses’ for the African people, sent to deliver his people and bring them to a place of paradise under his leadership. This, along with his claims of spiritual powers enables him to command absolute control over his rebel troops, telling them that his orders come directly from God and therefore should not be questioned. He prophesied that he would rule Uganda under the Ten Commandments, ironically Kony has broken all of them through his actions to try to achieve this goal[8]. Kony is unlike the rebel leader that Paul Collier outlines in his book The Bottom Billion, which he describes as someone who is seeking to bring social justice to a broken country.[9] Instead, Kony operates his rebel force out of selfish ambition instead of legitimately trying to help his people. He is aware that peace resolutions are available that could help the Acholi people, but he instead continues to cause destruction and harm.
Kony and the LRA have committed atrocious crimes against humanity, meeting the requirements described for direct, structural and cultural violence through their actions. They have targeted southern Ugandans as well as fellow Acholis, they have indirectly displaced thousands as well as remained hostile towards the government of Uganda and those that oppose their cause.
Furthermore, the methods that the LRA have developed are deplorable. One of the organizations worst crimes emerged when the LRA’s numbers were dwindling under the young leadership of Kony in the early 1990s. In order to boost the recruiting number, Kony adopted the practice of abducting children and using the boys as child soldiers and the girls as sex-salves. Once taken violently from their homes, the children are treated like animals and even forced to commit violent crimes against their own communities and families. As Human Rights Watch has reported:
The children are used as pack animals by the rebels, forced to carry heavy loads until some collapse from exhaustion. Those who collapse are killed. Children who try to escape are stabbed or clubbed to death, and the rebel force other captive children to mete out these grisly punishments. The children are forced to participate in other atrocities, as well, including the murder of civilians and the looting and destruction of homes and stores... All children received military training and girls are given to rebel commanders as ‘wives.’ During the fighting in Uganda and Sudan, rebel commanders force young children—some not even armed—to run to the front lines. The children are often not permitted to take cover, and many die in battle.[10]
These children are brainwashed and unfairly stripped of their innocent childhood in order to try to satisfy the ambitions of a twisted man. Raids are continually carried out to get a hold of children to be used as members of the LRA which has thus caused many to flee from their homes, leaving whatever if left easily securable for the rebels to take (i.e. food, clothing, weapons).[11]
Through the coercion of Kony, children are conditioned to believe Kony has spiritual powers that will protect them in battle. This has resulted in an army of children unafraid to die, ruthless soldiers rather than innocent, care-free children. They are thus used as disposable tools in the LRA’s raids, often dressed in uniforms so that they will be shot first. The structure of the organization also suppresses the children due to the fact that so much of the force is made up of youth; there is an unquestioned leadership of older adults who control the group.[12]
Kony and the LRA have committed atrocious crimes against humanity, meeting the requirements described for direct, structural and cultural violence through their actions. They have targeted southern Ugandans as well as fellow Acholis, they have indirectly displaced thousands as well as remained hostile towards the government of Uganda and those that oppose their cause.
Furthermore, the methods that the LRA have developed are deplorable. One of the organizations worst crimes emerged when the LRA’s numbers were dwindling under the young leadership of Kony in the early 1990s. In order to boost the recruiting number, Kony adopted the practice of abducting children and using the boys as child soldiers and the girls as sex-salves. Once taken violently from their homes, the children are treated like animals and even forced to commit violent crimes against their own communities and families. As Human Rights Watch has reported:
The children are used as pack animals by the rebels, forced to carry heavy loads until some collapse from exhaustion. Those who collapse are killed. Children who try to escape are stabbed or clubbed to death, and the rebel force other captive children to mete out these grisly punishments. The children are forced to participate in other atrocities, as well, including the murder of civilians and the looting and destruction of homes and stores... All children received military training and girls are given to rebel commanders as ‘wives.’ During the fighting in Uganda and Sudan, rebel commanders force young children—some not even armed—to run to the front lines. The children are often not permitted to take cover, and many die in battle.[10]
These children are brainwashed and unfairly stripped of their innocent childhood in order to try to satisfy the ambitions of a twisted man. Raids are continually carried out to get a hold of children to be used as members of the LRA which has thus caused many to flee from their homes, leaving whatever if left easily securable for the rebels to take (i.e. food, clothing, weapons).[11]
Through the coercion of Kony, children are conditioned to believe Kony has spiritual powers that will protect them in battle. This has resulted in an army of children unafraid to die, ruthless soldiers rather than innocent, care-free children. They are thus used as disposable tools in the LRA’s raids, often dressed in uniforms so that they will be shot first. The structure of the organization also suppresses the children due to the fact that so much of the force is made up of youth; there is an unquestioned leadership of older adults who control the group.[12]
Ramifications
The almost unthinkable atrocities committed by the LRA have had devastating consequences on not only northern Uganda, but also central Africa, and due to the interconnectedness of the world through globalization; the ramifications have extended even farther. To begin, in terms of direct violence, the conflict has resulted in the displacement of an estimated 240,000 people. This has forced many into camps where conditions are horrendous which has resulted in the deaths of many innocent people by preventable diseases due to poor sanitation and nutrition. Structurally, Uganda has seen a collapse in infrastructure, education and health care in its northern region. In some areas of the north, schools have been shut down due to the fact that they are often used as targets by the LRA for child abductions; this furthermore causes damage to the social structure of the region.[13]
Culturally, an entire generation of young people, specifically Acholi youth, have been robbed of their childhood. This will have consequently that will extend beyond the resolution of the conflict because there will be generation of children with severe emotional as well as physical problems who will not be able to live up to social or economic responsibilities of restoring the region. Similarly, the culture and social structure of the Acholi has been destroyed as a result of Kony’s perverted agenda and subsequent actions.[14]
Additionally, due to the fact that the LRA has extended beyond northern Uganda into central Africa, the ramifications of the LRA’s actions have been intensified. The LRA then brings further conflict into regions plagued by their own problems. For example, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, there is a gruesome practice of trading in blood minerals. The LRA is now operating in the same areas as these mineral mines which impede any kind of resolution to this conflict. Furthermore, this then has global ramifications due to the fact that these minerals are traded globally and often end up in our technological equipment like cell phones and laptops.[15]
Culturally, an entire generation of young people, specifically Acholi youth, have been robbed of their childhood. This will have consequently that will extend beyond the resolution of the conflict because there will be generation of children with severe emotional as well as physical problems who will not be able to live up to social or economic responsibilities of restoring the region. Similarly, the culture and social structure of the Acholi has been destroyed as a result of Kony’s perverted agenda and subsequent actions.[14]
Additionally, due to the fact that the LRA has extended beyond northern Uganda into central Africa, the ramifications of the LRA’s actions have been intensified. The LRA then brings further conflict into regions plagued by their own problems. For example, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, there is a gruesome practice of trading in blood minerals. The LRA is now operating in the same areas as these mineral mines which impede any kind of resolution to this conflict. Furthermore, this then has global ramifications due to the fact that these minerals are traded globally and often end up in our technological equipment like cell phones and laptops.[15]
What is Being Done
In more recent years, the conflict has received greater, and much needed, attention. In 2001, the United States declared the LRA a terrorist organization which has helped in bringing some of the group’s worst crimes to light. Then in 2004, the US Congress passed a legislation called the Northern Uganda Crisis Response Acts which was created to further address the disaster in Uganda. In the following year, the International Criminal Court issued warrants for the arrest of the LRA’s top leaders, including Kony.[16]
In terms of negotiating peace, so far several attempts at coming to a peaceful resolution of the conflict have been made, but to no avail. Hopes were high in 2008 when the Juba Peace Talks were developed and the Final Peace Agreement was established and ready to be signed by both parties of Joseph Kony and President Museveni for the Ugandan government. The hope that arrived with these talks was quickly dashed when twice, Kony failed to appear to sign the Agreement. His reasons for doing this were vaguely stated as concerns over the warrants for the arrest of him and the other leaders and what might become of them post-conflict. As a result, the conflict continued raging on in central Africa.[17]
More recently, back in November 2010, a decision was made by the United States government under the Obama administration, to pass the LRA Disarmament and Northern Ugandan Recovery Act which entailed sending troops to assist the military of the DR Congo, South Sudan, Central African Republic and Uganda in their efforts to apprehend Kony. The objectives of the support mission are as such: “...increased protection of civilians, the apprehension or removal of Joseph Kony and senior LRA commanders from the battlefield, the promotion of defections from the LRA and support of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) of remaining LRA fighters, and the provision of continued humanitarian relief to affected communities.”[18]
A central critique of this plan is that it is centred on the removal of Kony. Some believe that this will not end the conflict; Kony may be the spiritual and militant leader of the group, but there are many other leaders in the group that would be able to take his place.[19] The result would be the weakening, but not destruction of the LRA, as was in the case when Lakwena fled; the group did not dissolve, but was restructured and consequently fell into the hands of Kony.
In addition, advocacy of this conflict has increased over the past decade. This has been largely due to the efforts of non-government organizations like Invisible Children, who first sought to end to plight of Acholi children who had to resort to something called ‘night-commuting’ in order to protect themselves from being abducted by the rebels. This practice has now ended under their efforts.[20] Additionally, Human Rights Watch has also been an active member of those trying to bring awareness to this conflict, publishing a comprehensive report detailing the LRA’s atrocities.
In terms of negotiating peace, so far several attempts at coming to a peaceful resolution of the conflict have been made, but to no avail. Hopes were high in 2008 when the Juba Peace Talks were developed and the Final Peace Agreement was established and ready to be signed by both parties of Joseph Kony and President Museveni for the Ugandan government. The hope that arrived with these talks was quickly dashed when twice, Kony failed to appear to sign the Agreement. His reasons for doing this were vaguely stated as concerns over the warrants for the arrest of him and the other leaders and what might become of them post-conflict. As a result, the conflict continued raging on in central Africa.[17]
More recently, back in November 2010, a decision was made by the United States government under the Obama administration, to pass the LRA Disarmament and Northern Ugandan Recovery Act which entailed sending troops to assist the military of the DR Congo, South Sudan, Central African Republic and Uganda in their efforts to apprehend Kony. The objectives of the support mission are as such: “...increased protection of civilians, the apprehension or removal of Joseph Kony and senior LRA commanders from the battlefield, the promotion of defections from the LRA and support of disarmament, demobilization, and reintegration (DDR) of remaining LRA fighters, and the provision of continued humanitarian relief to affected communities.”[18]
A central critique of this plan is that it is centred on the removal of Kony. Some believe that this will not end the conflict; Kony may be the spiritual and militant leader of the group, but there are many other leaders in the group that would be able to take his place.[19] The result would be the weakening, but not destruction of the LRA, as was in the case when Lakwena fled; the group did not dissolve, but was restructured and consequently fell into the hands of Kony.
In addition, advocacy of this conflict has increased over the past decade. This has been largely due to the efforts of non-government organizations like Invisible Children, who first sought to end to plight of Acholi children who had to resort to something called ‘night-commuting’ in order to protect themselves from being abducted by the rebels. This practice has now ended under their efforts.[20] Additionally, Human Rights Watch has also been an active member of those trying to bring awareness to this conflict, publishing a comprehensive report detailing the LRA’s atrocities.
Conclusion
This conflict is far from being straightforward, and therefore the resolution is unlikely to be straightforward. It would be unfair to categorize Kony and his rebels simply as religious nutcases. The issues of this conflict are deep-rooted as outlined. Kony’s tactics are atrocious and have resulted in the physical, mental and emotional scaring of a generation of youth in central Africa. The violence used by the LRA has directly, structurally and culturally harmed an entire geographic region.
The efforts of the United States government as well as those of the militaries of the affected countries in central Africa are definitely honourable and hopeful. Skepticism is still present though, and time will be the factor that indicated how effective the mission will prove. Moreover, it is clear that the situation in northern Uganda in particular has improved, but will never be resolved until the LRA has been definitively defeated and dissolved, and its leaders brought to justice. Until then, continued awareness is the best effort we can put forth.
The efforts of the United States government as well as those of the militaries of the affected countries in central Africa are definitely honourable and hopeful. Skepticism is still present though, and time will be the factor that indicated how effective the mission will prove. Moreover, it is clear that the situation in northern Uganda in particular has improved, but will never be resolved until the LRA has been definitively defeated and dissolved, and its leaders brought to justice. Until then, continued awareness is the best effort we can put forth.
[1] Nathan Funk, “Conflict, Violence, and Peace: An Introduction to Peace and Conflict Studies” (lecture at the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, September 14, 2010).
[2] Ibid.
[3] “A History of Africa’s Longest Running War,” Invisible Children, accessed November 24, 2011, http:/www.invisiblechildren.com/history-of-the-war.
[4] “The Scars of Death: Child Abduction by the Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda,” Human Rights Watch, last modified September 1997, http://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/uganda.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Ibid.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 29.
[10] “The Scars of Death: Child Abduction by the Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda,” Humans Rights Watch, last modified September 1997, http://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/uganda/.
[11] “In the Spotlight: The Lord’s Resistance Army,” Centre of Defence Information, last modified October 27, 2004, http://www.cdi.org/program/document.cfm?documentid=2606&programID=39from_page=./friendlyversion/pr.
[12] Ibid.
[13] “The Scars of Death: Child Abduction by the Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda,” Humans Rights Watch, last modified September 1997, http://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/uganda/.
[14] “Causes and consequences of the war in Acholiland,” Conciliation Resources, accessed November 25, 2011, http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/northern-uganda/causes-dynamics.php.
[15] “About Conflict Minerals,” last modified November 3, 2009, http://conflictminerals.org/about/.
[16] “A History of Africa’s Longest Running War,” Invisible Children, accessed November 24, 2011, http:/www.invisiblechildren.com/history-of-the-war.
[17] Ibid.
[18] “The Deployment of U.S. Forces in Central Africa and Implementation of the Lord’s Resistance Army Disarmament and Northern Uganda Recovery Act,” last modified October 25, 2011, http://www.state.gov/p/af/rls/rm/2011/176160.htm.
[19] “Who is the LRA,” LRA Crisis Tracker, accessed November 24, 2011, http://www.lracrisistracker.com/media/video/who-lra.
[20] “A History of Africa’s Longest Running War,” Invisible Children, accessed November 24, 2011, http:/www.invisiblechildren.com/history-of-the-war.
[2] Ibid.
[3] “A History of Africa’s Longest Running War,” Invisible Children, accessed November 24, 2011, http:/www.invisiblechildren.com/history-of-the-war.
[4] “The Scars of Death: Child Abduction by the Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda,” Human Rights Watch, last modified September 1997, http://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/uganda.
[5] Ibid.
[6] Ibid.
[7] Ibid.
[8] Ibid.
[9] Paul Collier, The Bottom Billion (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007), 29.
[10] “The Scars of Death: Child Abduction by the Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda,” Humans Rights Watch, last modified September 1997, http://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/uganda/.
[11] “In the Spotlight: The Lord’s Resistance Army,” Centre of Defence Information, last modified October 27, 2004, http://www.cdi.org/program/document.cfm?documentid=2606&programID=39from_page=./friendlyversion/pr.
[12] Ibid.
[13] “The Scars of Death: Child Abduction by the Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda,” Humans Rights Watch, last modified September 1997, http://www.hrw.org/reports/1997/uganda/.
[14] “Causes and consequences of the war in Acholiland,” Conciliation Resources, accessed November 25, 2011, http://www.c-r.org/our-work/accord/northern-uganda/causes-dynamics.php.
[15] “About Conflict Minerals,” last modified November 3, 2009, http://conflictminerals.org/about/.
[16] “A History of Africa’s Longest Running War,” Invisible Children, accessed November 24, 2011, http:/www.invisiblechildren.com/history-of-the-war.
[17] Ibid.
[18] “The Deployment of U.S. Forces in Central Africa and Implementation of the Lord’s Resistance Army Disarmament and Northern Uganda Recovery Act,” last modified October 25, 2011, http://www.state.gov/p/af/rls/rm/2011/176160.htm.
[19] “Who is the LRA,” LRA Crisis Tracker, accessed November 24, 2011, http://www.lracrisistracker.com/media/video/who-lra.
[20] “A History of Africa’s Longest Running War,” Invisible Children, accessed November 24, 2011, http:/www.invisiblechildren.com/history-of-the-war.